The Conflation of Religion and Desolation in William Butler Yeats’ “The Second Coming”

William Butler Yeats, a prominent 20th Century Irish poet, grappled with growing tensions in the world, specifically the aftermath of World War I, a war that contemporaries like Yeats called “The Great War.” Yeats contended with the aftereffects of The Great War, alarmed by the moral degradation he saw within humanity. In a letter to his friend, John Quinn, Yeats voiced his feelings about the war, regarding it as “the most expensive outbreak of insolence and stupidity the world has ever seen” (O’Toole). Despite his Irish Protestantism upbringing, Yeats did not remain Christian as an adult. In fact, he believed Christianity’s time was coming to an end, an idea he discusses in his poem, “The Second Coming.” Yeats used his Christian knowledge of The Second Coming, a Christian and Islamic belief that Jesus will return to earth again after his ascension two thousand years ago, to reflect on the chaotic turn of society. Yeats offers a twist to traditional religious beliefs, regarding the return of Christ as a harbinger of doom and chaos rather than a blessing. In William Butler Yeats’ poem, “The Second Coming,” he places biblical imagery and allusions alongside scenes of destruction and apocalypse, prophesying an irreparable change of society due to human violence and chaos, ultimately ending in the fall of Christianity.

Yeats uses biblical allusions to emphasize the chaotic state of the world and the impending fall of Christianity. The poem title alone, “The Second Coming,” refers to the religious belief that one day Jesus Christ will return and provide salvation to humanity. However, throughout his poem, although the narrator infers “surely some revelation is at hand,” readers find “the Second Coming” to be fruitless. Yeats ambiguously mentions how the “ceremony of innocence is drowned,” referring to Christian baptism where a new believer, usually a child, is anointed with holy water to induct them into Christian society (Yeats). The King James Bible asserts “he that believeth and is baptized shall be saved” “but he that believeth not shall be damned,” as the holy water should wash one clean of their sins as they proclaim their faith anew (King James Bible, Mark. 16.16). Yeats tactfully perverts the baptism ceremony in his poem to highlight its futility in the newly ruined world. His use of the word “drowned” denotes a sense of helplessness and tragedy; Paired with “ceremony of innocence,” which connotes new beginnings, the use of “drowned” creates a feeling of inevitable dread (Yeats). Yeats purposefully juxtaposes imagery that implies a start of life, “innocence,” with imagery that assumes an end to one’s life, “drowned,” to instill a pervasive sense of collapse (Yeats). Although the narrator witnesses a god-like being in the wake of the Second Coming, no fears of uncertainty are squashed. Instead, Yeats portrays the new god as a “beast,” where after “twenty centuries of stony sleep” he slowly “slouches towards Bethlehem” (Yeats). Yeats mention of Bethlehem and the twenty centuries that Christians have waited for the Second Coming establishes clear biblical references that he then perverts to stress the faltering nature of Christianity in an increasingly immoral world.

Yeats use of desolate imagery highlights humanity’s far fall from grace and morality. He begins the poem by remarking on the world’s “Turning and turning in the widening gyre” until “The falcon cannot hear the falconer” (Yeats). His reference to the “widening gyre” indicates a repetitive circular motion that is gradually widening, moving away from it center (Yeats). The following line, “The falcon cannot hear the falconer” suggests a larger collapse of reason, as if humanity is the “falcon” and civilization is the “falconer,” where humanity can no longer “hear” civilization (Yeats). The juxtaposition of the two lines denotes Yeats’ belief that history has consistently moved towards instability. He continues, vaguely noting how “Things fall apart; the centre cannot hold,” affirming that human society is bound to fail (Yeats). His mention of “the centre” refers to society’s dependance on religion as a moral “centre,” which has consequentially “fall[en] apart” after the violence of WWI. Now, Yeats observes how “mere anarchy is loosed upon the world,” as civilization has forsaken religion and order, replacing them with chaos and destruction (Yeats). His imagery spirals deeper into apocalyptic visions, as the narrator witnesses “a waste of desert sand” where a mysterious beast prowls and “indignant desert birds” hover treacherously (Yeats). Yeats use of desert imagery instills a tactile aura of hopelessness, as he asserts the absence of civilization and community by the vast, empty, and environmentally degraded atmosphere of a scorched desert. He begins the next stanza by explaining how “darkness drops again,” seeming to imply a cyclical lapse into ruin (Yeats). His shift from desert imagery with a scorching, “pitiless…sun” to “darkness” further perpetuates a sense of disorientation and “anarchy,” as even time and weather remain uncertain in this new world (Yeats). The narrator notes how the “vast image of Spiritus Mundi,” a Latin term that means “world spirit,” “troubles [their] sight,” as they observe the collective human consciousness becoming unhinged and disturbed (Yeats, Spiritus Mundi: Definition and Overview); Yeats inclusion of the Latin term ascertains the shift in humanity to be a permanent, historical change that affects all the world.

Yeats uses rhyme and repetition to juxtapose biblical images with scenes of barrenness and waste, fusing the two into one bleak category. He rhymes “hand” from “the Second Coming is at hand” with “sand” from “a waste of desert sand” and “man” from “lion body and the head of a man,” to juxtapose the imminent return of Christ with the present sight of a wasted desert and the eerie vision of a beast rather than the human form of Jesus (Yeats). Yeats connects the three categories to emphasize the disorderly nature of the new world, where all the tenets of civilized society, like religion and community, have wasted away into pagan apocalypse. In the second stanza, the narrator supposes that “Surely some revelation is at hand; /Surely the Second Coming is at hand,” repeating “surely” and “hand” to imply a faltering certainty (Yeats). The narrator seems to confidently proclaim, “Surely the Second Coming is at hand;” Then, when he repeats in the following line, “The Second Coming!” the tone shifts from one of certainty to one of desperation (Yeats). In the broader context of the poem, the Second Coming is neither certain nor indicative of salvation; Rather, the return of Christ turns eerie and bleak as one realizes the God that has returned is sinister and beast-like.

Yeats poises the Christian son of God, Jesus, as a beast instead of a savior, twisting reader assumptions and asserting the rise of a new religion. Instead of providing salvation from moral ruin during the “second coming” as one would expect, Yeats instead portrays Jesus’ “gaze” as “blank and pitiless,” comparing it to the desolate “sun” (Yeats). Jesus, the benevolent human manifestation of God, looks upon the human race without pity, perhaps illustrating how far humanity has fallen from grace. The narrator sees “a shape with lion body and the head of a man,” alluding to the sphinx from Ancient Egyptian and Greek mythology, two pagan, polytheistic religions. The conflation of paganism with Christianity implies further moral ruin of humanity, claiming that traditional religion can no longer be relied on as the sole protective measure against doom. He ends his poem questioning “what rough beast…slouches towards Bethlehem to be born?”, referencing Jesus’ birthplace and birth as a scourge rather than a gift to humanity. His final question establishes the rise of a new god and religion, as although one is uncertain of the god who has been enshrined in a “stony sleep” for 2,000 years, their birth is destined, as they are already “vexed to nightmare by a rocking cradle” (Yeats). The word “cradle” implies a birth has already taken place, doubly implying the birth of a new religious order and the prevalent societal upheaval witnessed by Yeats after WWI (Yeats). In another sense, Yeats claim that the “rough beast” already “slouches towards Bethlehem” suggests the fall of Christianity and the rise of a new religion has already begun (Yeats).

William Butler Yeats’ poem articulates a broader public sentiment regarding the aftermath of WWI and the callous acts committed by supposed civilized societies. “The Second Coming” expresses a frustration with human society, predicting a continual fall of order despite those who rely on their Christian beliefs as an indicator of morality. He explores his belief that Christianity’s reign is coming to an end, noting how biblical conviction of future salvation can no longer be presumed in a such a chaotic world. Instead of providing salvation, “the Second Coming” foretells the downfall of Christianity. Yeats divines a new religious order; However, the god and “beast” that “Slouches towards Bethlehem” is no benevolent being but a “pitiless” ruler whose reign will thrive on uncertainty (Yeats). Through this assertion, Yeats argues the futility of waiting for the son of God to save humankind rather than changing it through human action. His words foretell doom, ultimately asserting a bleak future for humankind.

Works Cited

Cohen, Adam. “What W. B. Yeats's 'Second Coming' Really Says about the Iraq War.” The New York Times, 12 Feb. 2007, www.nytimes.com/2007/02/12/opinion/12mon4.html.

“Mark Chapter: 16.” King James Bible, www.thekingsbible.com/Bible/41/16.

Notari, Debbie. “Spiritus Mundi: Definition and Overview.” Study.com, 15 July 2015, study.com/academy/lesson/spiritus-mundi-definition-lesson-quiz.html#:~:text=Definition%20of%20Spiritus%20Mundi,literally%20means%2C%20''world%20spirit.

O'Toole, Fintan. “Lost for Words: Irish Writing on the First World War.” The Irish Times, The Irish Times, 5 May 2015, www.irishtimes.com/culture/heritage/lost-for-words-irish-writing-on-the-first-world-war-1.2190779#:~:text=In%20June%201915%20WB%20Yeats,little%20thought%20as%20I%20can.

Shmoop Editorial Team. “The Second Coming Stanza II.” Shmoop, Shmoop University, 11 Nov. 2008, www.shmoop.com/study-guides/poetry/second-coming/summary/stanza-ii#:~:text=Although%202%2C000%20years%20seems%20like,a%20metaphor%20for%20social%20upheaval.

Yeats, William Butler. The Second Coming. The Dial, 1921.